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PROFESSIONAL
ENGLISH Електронний посібник |
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Part I |
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1. From the History of Building 2. Some Facts about Building Materials 7. Metals, Glass and Plastics as Building Materials 8. Plastics all over the World 10. From the History of Civil Engineering
Many thousands of years ago there were
no houses such as people live in today. In hot countries people sometimes
made their homes in the trees and used leaves to protect themselves from rain
or sun. In colder countries they dwelt in caves. Later people left their
caves and trees and began to build houses of different materials such as mud,
wood or stones. Later people found out that bricks
made of mud and dried in the hot sunshine became almost as hard as stones. In
ancient Egypt especially, people learned the use of these sun-dried mud
bricks. Some of their buildings are still standing after several thousands of
years. The ancient Egyptians discovered how
to cut stone for building purposes. They erected temples, palaces and huge
tombs. The greatest tomb is the stone pyramid of Khufu, King of Egypt. The
ancient Egyptians often erected their huge buildings without thinking of
their usefulness. The ancient Greeks also understood the
art of building with cut stone, and their buildings were beautiful as well as
useful. They often used pillars, partly for supporting the roofs and partly
for decoration. Parts of these ancient buildings can still be seen today in
Greece. During the last hundred years many new
methods of building have been discovered. One of the most recent discoveries
is the usefulness of steel as a building material. Nowadays when it is necessary to have
a very tall building, the frame of it is first built in steel and then the
building is completed in concrete. Concrete is an artificial kind of stone,
much cheaper than brick or natural stone and much stronger than they are.
1. People first lived in ... (a)
houses, b)
palaces, c) trees or caves). 2. Egyptian pyramids are made of (a)
stone, b) wood, c) bricks). 3. The cheapest building
material is … (a) wood, b) bricks, c) concrete). 4. The ancient Greeks knew the art of building with ... (a) steel, b) cut stone, c) concrete). 5. Nowadays very tall and huge buildings are made of ... (a) steel and concrete, b) bricks, c) stone).
1. The ancient
Greeks used pillars for ... . 2. We usually
make houses of ... . 3. Bricks are
made of … . 4. The ancient Egyptians
made their homes of ... .
1. Where did people live many thousands of years ago? 2. Did ancient people use wood or bricks to build their houses? 3. What kinds of buildings did the ancient Egyptians erect? 4. What did the ancient Greeks use pillars for? 5. Is steel used as a building material? 6. What kinds of building materials do you know?
A
brief history of Building construction | A timeline of major changes in the
Building industry https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uv74qwzI8C8
Humanity has accumulated a lot of
building materials which have evolved thanks to the eternal need for
construction. The main building materials are timber,
stone brick, concrete, steel, light metals, glass and plastics. Timber was one
of the first materials to be used by man for constructional purposes. It is
highly probable that it will be one of the last. Timber is unique among the
materials of construction. It will be available when the earth's capital
deposits of iron, coal, clay and the rest have been consumed. The buildings
made of stone or brick are durable and fireproof, they have a poor heat
conductivity. Concrete made with natural hydraulic
binders was used in antiquity, particularly by the Romans. After the decline
of the Roman Empire the art of making concrete has been forgotten, and the
revival came much later. Concrete may be considered an artificial
conglomerate of crushed stone, gravel or similar inert material with a
mortar. A mixture of sand, screenings or similar inert particles with cement
and water which has the capacity of hardening into a rocklike mass is called
mortar. The fundamental object in proportioning
concrete or mortar mixes is the production of a durable material of requisite
strength, water tightness and other essential properties at minimum cost. To
attain this end careful attention must be given to the selection of cement,
aggregate and water. Reinforced concrete is hardly 100 years
old. Today it is used in all civilized countries as one of the most important
building materials. One of the essential properties of concrete is its
compressive strength. Portland cement was produced more than a
century ago. From the time of its first production there was a steady and
gradual improvement in its compressive strength.
1. The first building
material was ____ . 2. Buildings made of
stone are ____ . 3. Mortar is made of
____ . 4. Concrete is made of
____ .
1. Concrete was one of the first
building materials people used for construction. 2. Mortar
is a soft substance consisting of sand, screenings and cement mixed with
water. 3. If we have in mind to produce a
high-quality concrete, we must think about its main components: cement, aggregate
and water – about their quality and quantity as well. 4. Portland cement has a long history of
its gradual development.
Introduction to Building Materials https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XsFeVuVQE-E
A brick is best described as “a building unit”. It
may be made of burnt clay, of concrete, of mortar or of a composition of
sawdust and, other materials; in shape it is a rectangular solid and its
weight is from ½ 6 to 9 lb. The shape and convenient size of a brick enables a
man to grip it with an easy confidence and, because of this, brick-building
has been popular for many hundreds of years. The hand of the average man is
large enough to take a brick and he is able to handle more than 500 bricks in
an eight-hour working day. It is necessary, therefore, for the “would-be”
bricklayer to practice handling a brick until he can control it with complete
mastery and until he is able to place it into any desired position. By placing the hand over the surface of the upper
part of a brick and by placing the thumb centrally down the face of the brick
with the first joints of the fingers on the opposite face, the brick may be
securely handled. It is necessary to protect the thumb and the fingers with
leather pads which also prevent the skin from rough bricks.
1. What materials is
brick made of? 2. Why brick-building has
been popular for many hundreds of years? 3. What is the shape of a
brick? 4. What is the brick's
weight?
the
shape and size of a brick; with an easy confidence; the width of a brick;
with complete mastery; to place a brick into a desired position.
1. A brick can be made burnt clay. 2. Brick-building has
been popular for many hundreds of years. 3. A "would-be"
bricklayer must practice handling a brick until he can control it with
complete mastery. 4. A bricklayer is able
to place a brick into any desired position. 5. The bricklayer's thumb
and the fingers must be protected with leather pads.
Compressive clay Reinforced a brick Portland conductivity Heat stone Leather tightness Cut pads Handling concrete Building cement Water unit Burnt strength
1. The cheapest building
material is ___. 2. The ancient people lived
in ___. 3. Concrete is made of
___. 4. Mortar consists of
___. 5. Brick is made of ___. 6. The first building
material was ___.
The
requirements to be fulfilled by concrete vary to a great extent. One of the
essential properties of concrete is its compressive strength. From the time of
its first production more than a century ago there was a steady and gradual
improvement in the compressive strength of Portland cement until the
beginning of the war. Portland
cement is a product obtained by mixing and then burning two raw materials, the
one composed largely of lime and the other of material containing silica,
alumina and iron. The two raw materials are ground and mixed to give definite
proportions of lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide. The finished product
should receive no addition other than gypsum. Portland cement can to some
extent be modified to suit a particular application. It has led to the
development of an increasing variety such as high alumina cement and puzzolanas. With
the cements now available much higher strengths can be obtained than some 60
years ago. The increase in strength is partly due to the increased fineness
to which modern cements are ground. Cement develops heat during hydration.
This is of considerable importance in certain types of concrete construction,
particularly in structures of large volume, such as dams, massive retaining
walls and the like. A very high rate of heat development is advantageous in
work done in cold weather, so as to protect the fresh concrete from the
effect of low temperatures. Selection
of the cement alone does not ensure concrete with the properties desired,
which depend also on the choice of aggregates and mixes, the control of the
quantity of water added to the mix, and on a series of other factors. It
should be noted that cement is the most important component of concrete.
1. Since its invention time Portland
cement had been evolving the compressive strength until the beginning of the
war. 2. High alumina cement and puzzolanas aren't the modifications of Portland cement
which have some particular qualities. 3. Modern cements can be ground now
perfectly well which results partly in the increase in their strength. 4. If you want to prepare a high-quality
concrete, choose the best cement you have. Don't bother about any aggregates
and mixes and some other factors.
It is difficult to imagine modern
structure without concrete. Concrete is the very building material which led
to great structural innovations. The most important quality of concrete is
its property to be formed into large and strong monolithic units. The basic
materials for making concrete are cement, aggregate and water. Cement is the
most essential and important material for making concrete of high quality.
Cement is made of limestone and clay. It is burnt at high temperature and
ground up into powder. Depending on the kind and composition of the raw
materials different types of cement are obtained. Portland cement, blast
furnace cement are suitable for putting up marine
structures. Concrete is made by mixing cement,
water, sand and gravel in the right amount. As soon as it is thoroughly mixed
it is poured into forms that hold it in place until it hardens. Cement starts
hardening one hour after the water has been added and the process of
hardening lasts for about twenty-eight days. The process is called concrete
curing. The characteristics of concrete depend
upon the quality of the materials used, grading of the aggregates,
proportioning and amount of water. The most important requirements for
concrete are: it should be strong, hard, durable, fire-resistant and
economical. Concrete may be divided into two classes: mass or plain concrete
and reinforced concrete where it is necessary to introduce steel. Plain
concrete can be used for almost all kinds of buildings. Reinforced concrete
is used for building bridges and arches, dams and dock-walls, for under-water
structures, for foundations, columns, beams and so on. At present two types of new building
materials are successfully used by our builders: alkali-slag concrete and
silica concrete. Silica concrete is light, acid-proof and contains no cement.
It is widely used in aviation and in under water constructions.
1. You need cement, aggregate and water
to make concrete. 2. Cement starts hardening twenty-eight
hours after the water has been added. 3. Builders use reinforced concrete
while erecting all kinds of structures. 4. Reinforced concrete as well as silica
concrete can be used in under water constructions.
1. The most important
quality of concrete is …. 2. The basic materials
for making concrete are …. 3. Cement is …. 4. Cement is made of
…. 5. Cement starts
hardening …. 6. The process of
hardening is called …. 7. Concrete should be …. 8. Concrete may be
divided into two classes …. 9. Plain concrete can
be used for …. 10. Reinforced
concrete is used for …. 11. At present two
types of concrete are used …. 12. Silica concrete is
….
Prestressed concrete is not a new material. Its
successful use has been developed rapidly during, the last two decades,
chiefly because steel of a more suitable character has been produced. Concrete is strong in compression but weak when used
for tensile stresses. If, therefore, we consider a beam made of plain
concrete, and spanning a certain distance, it will at once be realised that the beamn’s own
weight will cause the beam to "sag" or bend. This sagging at once puts the lower, edge of the beam in
tension, and if the cross-sectional area is small, causes it to break, especially if the
span is relatively large. If, on the other hand, we use a beam of similar
cross-section, but incorporate steel bars in the lower portion, the steel
will resist the tensile stress derived from the sag of the beam, and thus
assist in preventing it from breaking. In prestressed concrete steel is not used as
reinforcement, but as a means of producing a suitable compressive stress in
the concrete. Therefore any beam (or member) made of
prestressed concrete is permanently under compression, and is consequently
devoid of cracks-under
normal loading, or so long as the "elastic limit" is not exceeded. Prestressed concrete is not only used for beams but
is now employed extensively for columns, pipes, and cylindrical water-towers,
storage tanks, etc.
1.
Prestressed concrete is ... (a) a completely mw building material, (b) not really a new material. 2.
The successful use of prestressed concrete has been developed rapidly ... (a) long ago,
(b) during the last two decades. 3.
Plain concrete is ... (a) strong in compression, (b) weak in compression. 4.
Plain concrete is …. (a) weak when used
for tensile stress, (b) strong when used for tensile stress. 5.
In prestressed concrete steel is used ... (a) as reinforcement, (b) as a means of producing a suitable compressive stress. 6.
Prestressed concrete is used ... (a) only for beams, (b) for beams, columns, pipes, etc.
1. Prestressed concrete has been used during ... . 2. Plain concrete is strong in ... . 3. The
sagging of a beam made of plain concrete may cause it to ... . 4. Incorporated steel bars in the lower portion of a
beam prevent ... . 5. A beam made of prestressed concrete is
permanently under ... . 6. Prestressed concrete is now employed extensively for ... .
The history of building in iron and
steel is hardly more than a hundred years old. The construction of the first
railways has given considerable impetus to cast and wrought iron production. The
commonest quality of steel for building construction is that known as mild
steel (m.s.). Several qualities of high tensile
steel are widely used everywhere. They vary both in their chemical
composition and their mechanical properties. The elements used for most steel
structures are the hot-rolled sections, produced in a great variety by the
rolling mills. Aluminum is the most important of the
light metals used in the building industry. Magnesium is still lighter, but
it has not yet become a building material. It is only used as an alloying
metal in conjunction with aluminum. The major characteristics of aluminum in
which the architect is interested are its durability and its light weight. Glass is now generally employed in the
construction of industrial buildings, office blocks and schools. In recent
years it has eclipsed all other materials for heat and sound insulation
purposes. Plastics are a new building material.
Nearly all the plastics are compounds of such simple elements as carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and sometimes nitrogen. The characteristics of the various
plastics depend upon the way in which these elements are combined. Plastics
are used where the older materials are not satisfactory, or for the
development of entirely new uses. Since plastics combine all the fine
characteristics of a building material together with good insulating
properties, and are fireproof as well, it is no wonder that the architects
and engineers have turned to them to add color and beauty to modern homes and
offices.
1. People began to use iron and steel for
construction more than three hundred years ago. 2. The rolling mills produce a lot of
hot-rolled sections, because they are necessary for most steel structures
nowadays. 3. Plastics, a new building material,
cannot have nitrogen in their composition. 4. Plastics have impressed the builders
with a number of good properties and they are now being used for
construction.
Properties of building materials
Building Materials https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjZVlFt3WQY
Nowadays plastics can be applied to almost every
branch of building, from the laying of foundation to the final coat of paint. A lot of decorative plastics now
available has brought about a revolution in interior and exterior design. But
plastics are used now not only for decoration. These materials are
sufficiently rigid to stand on their own without any support. They can be
worked with ordinary builders’ tools. Laminate is a strong material
manufactured from many layers of paper or textile impregnated with
thermosetting resins. This sandwich is then pressed and subjected to heat.
Laminate has been developed for both inside and outside use. It resists
severe weather conditions for more than ten years without serious
deformation. As a structural material it is recommended for exterior work.
Being used for surfacing, laminate gives the tough surface.
1. Plastics can be applied ... (a) only in radio engineering, b) to almost every branch of building). 2. Decorative plastics has brought about ... (a) some advantages, b) (a revolution in interior and exterior design). 3. Plastics are used ... (a) only for decoration, b) are sufficiently rigid to stand on their own without any
support). 4. Laminate has been developed for ... (a) only inside use, b) only outside use, c) both inside and outside use). 5. Laminate is impregnated with ... (a) thermosetting resins, b) rubber). 6. The sandwich is pressed and subjected ... (a) to cold, b)
to heat), 7. The laminate gives ... (a) a mild
surface, b)
tough surface).
"Colorplast" factory in Rovigo (Italy) manufactures
three main products: panels, window frames and door frames. The rigid,
extruded Polyvinylchloride (PVC) panels are made in a large range of sizes,
suitable for every kind of use. They are very strong, indeformable
and are extremely easy to assemble and disassemble. For this reason they are of particular interest for architects and
builders. The
second group of "Colorplast" products are
ready-to-mount window frames, made of rigid PVC. They are completely
draught-proof, waterproof, fireproof and sound absorbent, indeformable,
easy to install, economic and do not require maintenance. Moreover, they are
available with different types of openings in varying sizes and are designed
to meet any specific requirement. Finally
“Colorplast” produces patented internal laminated plastic melamine
doors. They are made up of laminated panels with honey-comb filling, finished
with rigid PVC borders. The
doorposts are made of wood with a laminated plastic finish.
are
made in a large range of sizes; the rigid, extruded PVC panels; are completely
water-proof, fire-proof and sound absorbent; easy to install; do not require
maintenance; are designed to meet any special requirement
1.
This factory« manufactures panels. 2.
The PVC panels are extremely easy to assemble and disassemble. 3.
The panels are made in a large range of sizes. 4.
The ready-to-mount window frames are made of rigid PVC. 5.
The window frames are completely waterproof and do not require maintenance.
It is known that the part played by
civil engineers in pioneering work and in developing wide areas of the world
has been and continue to be enormous. Civil engineering was not distinguished
from other branches of engineering until 200 years ago. This term was first
used to distinguish the work of the engineer with a non-military purpose from
military engineering. Most early engineers were considered to be engaged in
construction of fortifications. They were responsible for building the roads
and bridges required for the movement of troops and supplies. We believe the Roman armies of
occupation in Europe to have had brilliant engineers. After the collapse of
the Roman Empire there was little progress in communications. It was only
with the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the invention of steam
engine and realization of the potentialities in the use of iron that it
revived. Roads, canals, railways, ports, harbours
and bridges are supposed to be built then by engineers who called themselves
"civil" in contrast to military engineers. This may have emphasized
the value of their work to the community. The scope of civil engineering becoming
very broad, it is subdivided nowadays into such kinds as construction (all
kinds of buildings), highways and railways engineering, hydraulic engineering
(canals, dams, drainage and irrigation systems) and municipal engineering
(city planning, traffic regulation, water supply, and sewerage). The term "structural
engineering" means particularly the calculation and design of all kinds
of structures whose strength is mostly provided by steel, reinforced,
prestressed or precast concrete, or other alloys. This work involves a great
deal of mathematics and consultations from several different professions.
Concrete was one of the first building What branches
is civil engineering subdivided into? 1. It is subdivided into architectural
design and municipal engineering. 2. It is subdivided into rural and municipal
engineering. 3. It is subdivided into construction,
highway and railway engineering, hydraulic engineering and municipal
engineering. 4. It is subdivided into industrial and
rural engineering.
hydration, insulation, plastics, modified, compressive strength, raw
materials, monolithic units, concrete, reinforced concrete, concrete curing,
aggregate, limestone 1. In recent years glass has eclipsed all other materials
for heat and sound … purposes. 2. Nearly all the … are compounds of such simple
elements as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sometimes nitrogen. 3. One of the essential properties of concrete is
its …. 4. Portland cement is a product obtained by mixing
and then burning two …., the one composed largely of lime and the other of
material containing silica, alumina and iron. 5. Portland cement can to some extent be … to
suit a particular application. 6. Cement
develops heat during … 7. Cement is the most important component of … 8. The most important quality of concrete is its
property to be formed into large and strong … 9. The basic materials for making concrete are
cement, … and water. 10. Cement is made of … and clay. 11. The process of hardening lasts for about
twenty-eight days and is called … 12. Concrete may be divided into two classes:
mass or plain concrete and … where it is necessary to introduce steel.
Civil Engineering is known to be an
extremely broad professional field. It must make use of many different
branches of knowledge, including mathematics, theory of structures,
hydraulics, soil mechanics, surveying, hydrology, geology, economics and most
recently a knowledge of computers. Civil engineering projects involve the
physical, mathematical, earth, social, communications, and engineering
sciences. They believe civil engineering problems to involve many other
professional areas, including law, public health, economics, management,
finance and other branches of engineering. The scope and complexity of the field,
and its degree of involvement with other fields, has increased rapidly with
the development of modern science and technology and the growth of population
and national economics. Taken as a whole, modern engineering constitutes a
vital element of national industry which involves large numbers of people of
various special interests and occupations. Speaking about civil engineering we must
properly use the words "construction" and "building". The
term "construction" is supposed to be used to denote the erection
and repair of all types of buildings, roads, bridges, and other structures. The word "building" is mainly
used in the sense of domestic dwellings, including houses and multistorey blocks of flats, schools, hospitals and
office blocks, while "civil engineering" is used with reference to
bridges, roads, harbours, water supply and hydroelectric
schemes. In our country civil engineers are
trained at special higher schools and departments of the politechnical
universities. Civil engineering is considered to be a very honourable and ancient profession.
What is
the main meaning of the word "building"? 1. It means the calculation and design of
all types of structures. 2. It is mainly used in the sense of
domestic dwellings including houses, schools, hospitals, office blocks, etc. 3. It is mainly used in the sense of
industrial buildings. 4. It is used with reference to bridges,
roads, harbours, etc.
alumina, buildings, property, "civil", cement, sciences,
concrete, beam, complete mastery, shape, leather pads, compression 1. Plain concrete can be used for almost all
kinds of … 2. Silica concrete is light, acid-proof and
contains no … 3. Civil engineering projects involve the
physical, mathematical, earth, social, communications, and engineering … 4. Roads, canals, railways, ports, harbours and bridges are supposed to be built then by
engineers who called themselves … in contrast to military engineers. 5. High alumina cement is a material containing …
6. Durability is known to be a very elusive …. 7. A "would-be" bricklayer must
practice handling a brick until he can control it with … 8. Bricklayer's thumb and the fingers must be
protected with … 9. The … and convenient size of a brick enables a
man to grip it with an easy confidence. 10. Prestressed … is not a new material. 11. Concrete is strong in … but weak when used
for tensile stresses. 12. A … made of prestressed concrete is
permanently under compression.
What is Civil Engineering? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rn0pZlLlv-4
The buildings erected nowadays can be divided into two general classes: buildings or housing
and industrial buildings. As far as material is concerned buildings can be divided into brick,
wood, concrete, and steel buildings. Brick is an
artificial building material made of clay which is then
burnt for hardening. Natural stone (rubble masonry) is used for footing and
foundations for external walls carrying the load. Buildings
made of stone are durable and fire-resisting. The floors divide a building into stories. They may be either of timber
or, in brick buildings, of reinforced concrete details of big and small
sizes. The coverings or upper parts of buildings meant to keep out rain and
wind and to preserve the interior from exposure to weather, are called roofs.
They tie the walls and give the construction strength and firmness. Every building must have a beautiful appearance. The interior should
be planned to suit the requirements of the occupants while the
exterior must be simple with nothing superfluous. Every building should be provided with water, electricity, ventilation
and heating systems. The water supply and sewerage systems are called
plumbing. Careful consideration must be given to the amount of money which is
going to be spent in building the house. An estimate depending upon the
design of the building must be calculated after which work on the building
can be started.
1. Artificial
building materials are made ... (a) of
wood, b) of brick). 2. Buildings made
of stone are ... (a) indurable, b) durable). 3. The coverings
or upper parts of the building are called ... (a)
ceilings, b) roofs). 4. The exterior
of a building must be ...
(a) with superfluous decorations,
b) simple). 5. The water
supply and sewerage systems are called … (a)
heating, b) plumbing).
1. Building
materials are divided into
... . 2. The interior
should be planned to suit
... . 3. Every building
should be provided with ... . 4. An estimate depending
upon the design of the building must be calculated … .
Almost everyone saw the construction of a
building and followed its progress with interest. First the excavation is dug for the basement, then
the foundation walls below ground level are constructed; after this the
framework is erected and clothed with, various finishing materials and
protected by several coats of paint. The part upon which the stability of the
structure depends is the framework. It is intended for safety carrying the
loads imposed. The floors, walls, roofs and other parts of the building must
be carefully designed and proportioned. The
architect or designer must decide, what the size of the walls, the floors,
the beams, the girders and the parts which make-up the framework will be and
how they will be placed and arranged. Here
are the main parts of a building and their functions. Foundations
serve to keep the walls and floors from contact with the soil, to guard them against the
action of frost to prevent them from sinking and settling which cause cracks in walls and uneven floors. Floors
divide the building into stories. They may be either
of timber or of a fire-resisting material.
Walls are built to enclose
areas and carry the
weight of floors and roofs. The walls may be solid or hollow. The materials
used for the walls construction can be brick, stone, concrete and other natural or
artificial materials.
1. The excavation is dug ... . 2. The stability of the structure depends
upon … . 3.The building is divided into stories
by … . 4. The main parts of a building are ... .
several coat of paint; stability of the structure;
size of the walls; to keep the floors from contact with the soil;
fire-resisting materials; natural and artificial materials.
stories, foundations, fire-resisting, brick, roofs, superfluous, concrete,
concrete curing, aggregate, limestone 1. Buildings made of stone are durable and… . 2. The floors divide a building into… . 3. The coverings or upper parts of buildings
meant to keep out rain and wind and to preserve the interior from exposure of
weather are called… . 4. The exterior must be simple with nothing… . 5. Artificial building materials are made of ... . 6. … serve
to keep the walls and floors from contact
with the soil. 7. Cement is the most important component of … . 8. The basic materials for making concrete are
cement, … and water. 9. Cement is made of … and clay. 10. The process of hardening lasts for about
twenty-eight days and is called … .
The first houses were built for the
purpose of protecting their owners from the weather and, therefore, were very
simple – a roof to keep off the rain or snow, and walls to keep out the wind. The buildings erected now can be divided
into two broad classifications: they are either for housing or for industrial
purpose. As far as the material is concerned, the
building can be divided into stone (or brick), wood and concrete types. The
brick is an artificial material made of clay then burnt to harden it. The natural
stone (rubble masonry) is used for footing and foundations for external walls
carrying the load. The buildings made of stone or brick are durable,
fire-proof and have poor heat conductivity. The tiers or levels which divide a
building into stages or stories are called floors. These may be of timber but
in stone buildings they are made of ferro-concrete details in great and small
sizes. The coverings or upper parts of
buildings constructed over to keep out rain and wind and to preserve the
interior from exposure to the weather, are called roofs. These should tie the
walls and give strength and firmness to the construction. Every building must be beautiful in
appearance and proportional in various parts. The interior should be planned
to suit the requirements of the occupants while the exterior must be simple
without any excesses. Any building should be provided with
water, electricity, ventilation and heating system. Getting water into the house is called
plumbing. The plumbers have also to get the water out after it has been used.
The first part of this problem is called water supply and the second one is
called drainage or sewerage.
1. The upper part of building is … . 2. The exterior must be … . 3. The building is divided into stories by … . 4. Every building should be provided with … . 5. Building materials are divided into … .
heating wall upper
part carry stone water curing concrete system crushed supply retaining the load
Lap, partition, framework, basement, refuse, storey, floor, alumina, ferro-concrete,
sand, lime gravel, mortar, brick, timber, stone, glass, screenings.
Clay, durable, plumbing, cement, limestone,
aggregate 1. The water supply and sewerage system are called … . 2. Buildings made of stone are ... 3. Cement is made of … and clay. 4. Silica concrete is light, acid-proof and contains
no … . 5. The basic materials for making concrete are
cement, … and water.
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